Hanbok, Korea’s traditional attire, comprises a skirt, jacket, and pants, offering freedom of movement. Modern hanbok, reminiscent of the Joseon era, suits contemporary lifestyles with new colors and features. The skirt, exclusive to women, evolved from early layers to modern vests. Baji, or pants, were originally tied but transitioned to waist cords. Dopo, an overcoat, distinguishes Korean attire from Chinese and Japanese. Hanbok’s history dates to the Three Kingdoms, with styles evolving through Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Modernization trends influenced hanbok, balancing tradition with innovation. Embroidery, gold and silver foil, and natural dyes enhance hanbok’s aesthetic appeal. Efforts to globalize hanbok highlight its cultural significance beyond Korea. Despite challenges, hanbok remains a symbol of Korean identity, cherished for its elegance and heritage.
Hanbok, known as “hanbok” in Korean, is Korea’s traditional attire, dating back to ancient times. While commoners typically wore simple clothes like robes or pants, the basic components of hanbok—skirt (chima), jacket (jeogori), and pants—have remained consistent over the years. Hanbok prioritizes freedom of movement and doesn’t cling tightly to the body. Its straight fabric transforms into graceful curves when worn, enhancing aesthetics. Modern hanbok resembles those worn during the Joseon dynasty and is often worn for holidays and formal occasions. Contemporary hanbok emphasizes convenience and has evolved over the 20th century to meet modern lifestyles. Though not as readily available as Western clothing, designers continue to innovate hanbok, incorporating new colors, fabrics, and features to suit contemporary tastes and trends.
Hanbok Components
Generally, clothing consists of undergarments, such as undershirts, pants, and skirts, as well as outerwear like jackets or vests, each serving different purposes and worn on specific occasions. Hanbok includes various garments ranging from innerwear like undershirts, pants, and skirts to outerwear like jackets, vests, and coats. Here, we’ll focus on the fundamental elements that make up hanbok, from the basic layers worn closest to the body to the outermost garments worn on top.
Jeogori
Jeogori is the most basic upper garment that constitutes hanbok, worn by both men and women. Throughout history, it has been the most sensitive garment reflecting social status and fashion trends, remaining a focal point of study. Jeogori, covering the arms and torso, consists of various parts such as the collar, sleeves, side seams, and cuffs. The collar connects from the front to the back, typically adorned around the neck, while the side seams hang on each side of the garment, shaping the body. Cuffs are originally for securing the garment in a ribbon-like fashion but evolved into longer decorative elements over time. Additionally, side seams serve a functional role in garment care, making it easier for laundering and contributing to the overall neatness of the jeogori.
Jeogori can be categorized into single-layer, double-layer, padded, and quilted types based on sewing techniques and materials. Furthermore, different types of jeogori are distinguished by the use of fabrics of varying colors in different parts, such as minjeogori, banhojang jeogori, and samhojang jeogori.
For women’s hanbok, the jeogori often features elaborate embroidery at the end. While men’s jeogori remained relatively unchanged, women’s jeogori underwent significant shortening during the Joseon Dynasty, reaching its shortest length in the late 19th century. However, with modernization movements, contemporary jeogori became slightly longer, extending up to just above the waistline. Consequently, the cuffs also became longer and wider. In contrast, men’s jeogori traditionally covered the entire back and had longer cuffs.
Skirt
In hanbok, the skirt is used to cover women’s lower body, and it’s written in Chinese characters as “裳(상)” or “裙(군).” This garment is exclusively for women, unlike the jeogori, and its usage varies by gender. For instance, when comparing Goguryeo murals with those from Gyeongju, Goguryeo women wore skirts first, followed by a jeogori, often adorned with a belt around the waist. However, the custom of wearing a skirt before the jeogori wasn’t firmly established until before the Goryeo period. During the Goguryeo period, there was a pursuit of Western proportions, while in the Unified Silla period, long skirts worn over the jeogori resembled the attire of the Tang Dynasty.
The underskirt, introduced during the early 20th century in the modernization era, was made of materials like silk, cotton, or synthetic fabrics and was tied around the waist with a vest. This change was influenced by Walter, an American principal at Ewha Hakdang. By the mid-20th century, outer skirts evolved into garments covering the chest without sleeves, worn over a jeogori.
The way hanbok skirts are worn differs slightly from traditional attire in other Asian countries. For example, in India, the saree or the kebaya in Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia, and the sampot in Cambodia are tied or wrapped around the front, while Korean skirts are tied at the back.
Baji
Baji (바지) refers to the lower garment or pants worn as part of the hanbok (한복, 韓服) ensemble. There is no strict rule that baji must only be worn by women. The term generally refers to the pants component of hanbok attire, but can also describe ordinary pants like jeans, even if not part of traditional Korean dress. Until the 6th century, people simply tied the bottoms of their baji when wearing them. However, from the 7th century onwards, a new style emerged where instead of tying the bottoms, a cord or string was tied around the waist. In the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, baji are recorded as “geobgo” (겹고, layered/double pants), “dango” (단고, single pants), or simply “go” (고).
There are various types of baji, categorized based on color, fabric, sewing method, embroidery, etc. into hobaji (홑바지, single-layer), gajeukbaji (가죽바지, leather), myeongjubaji (명주바지, silk), and mubaebaji (무명바지, cotton). While the construction of Korean baji and Western pants is symmetrical, a key difference is that the front-back centerline of baji is diagonal. This allows for easier movement and also conveys the wearer’s dignity and social status. Unlike Western pants with defined measurements that can restrict movement, the loose-fitting nature of baji without set dimensions made them convenient for sitting on the floor, a common posture in traditional Korean lifestyle.
The term “baji” is said to originate from the Chinese characters “把持” (paji), first recorded by Jeong Inji. The pants worn specifically by the king and queen had a special name – “bongdi” (봉디).
Dopo
Dopo (도포) is a type of overcoat used as outerwear for warmth and is required to be worn at formal occasions. Durumagi (두루마기) is essentially a form of dopo as well. Dopo is an important distinguishing element between Korean clothing and the clothing of China and Japan. While women’s hanbok (한복, 韓服) typically consists of a jeogori (저고리, upper garment) and chima (치마, skirt) as the base with an overcoat like dopo, the clothing of China and Japan takes the form of a one-piece dress, resulting in a different overall appearance. Women’s hanbok incorporates a jeogori, while men’s hanbok featured dopo, a tradition that continued from the Three Kingdoms period through the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Dopo was used to represent the distinctive characteristics of men’s hanbok.
During the Joseon dynasty, durumagi largely replaced dopo as the primary overcoat for men’s attire, becoming an important indicator to distinguish the early and late Joseon periods.
Jjogki and jeogori
Jjogki (조끼), a term used to collectively refer to the jeogori (저고리, upper garment) worn under a vest or magoja, is the same as what is commonly called a “vest” in Western clothing. One key difference between jjogki and magoja is that the jjogki was introduced from the West towards the end of the Joseon dynasty.
The jjogki originated in the West and solved the problem of traditional hanbok lacking pockets to store personal items. After 1897, Western culture began to be introduced into Joseon society. Traditional hanbok culture transitioned to a mix of Korean and Western styles, emphasizing practicality. It was during this period that the jjogki, borrowed from the West, emerged.
Unlike the jjogki, the magoja was a type of clothing from the Manchurian region, originally called magwa or magwaja. The most widely known story is that it was brought back by the Heungseon Daewongun in 1887 after returning from Manchuria. He wore the magoja to withstand the cold climate, as it provided excellent insulation and was comfortable to wear, quickly becoming popular among the people. Worn as an outer garment by both men and women, men wore it at all times except during the summer. Initially without gender distinctions, it later became acceptable for all ages and genders to wear, with a belt added to the front. Structurally slightly longer than a jeogori with a deeply open neckline not requiring a separate git (collar) or dongjeong (tie), the magoja was worn over the jeogori and jjogki, with a durumagi overcoat worn on top when going out.
History
The origins of traditional Korean hanbok can be traced back to the clothing worn by residents of the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period. While the basic structure of jeogori (저고리, upper garment), baji (바지, pants), and chima (치마, skirt) that forms the foundation of hanbok has remained unchanged up to the 21st century, aspects such as length, width, and form have gradually evolved over time.
There were diverse styles of baji, including wide-legged pants, narrow pants, pants with cuffs gathered at the ankles, and pants with flared hems. The jeogori with a raised waistline was worn by both men and women without gender distinction until the Three Kingdoms era.
As time progressed, the dimensions and shapes adapted to the changing trends of each period. Yet the fundamental components of hanbok have preserved their core identities through the centuries.
Clothing of the Three Kingdoms Period
Goguryeo Clothing: Both men and women wore jeogori (저고리, upper garments) that extended down to the hips along with baji (바지, pants). Notably, the width of women’s pants became wider for those of higher status. However, men typically wore jeogori and baji, while women wore jeogori with either baji or chima (치마, skirts), or layers of jeogori and chima. While generally not too different from Chinese clothing, Goguryeo had three coexisting styles – jwahim (left overlap), uhim (right overlap), and hahim (wrapping the front left and right sides inward). Hairstyles also distinctly featured either sangtu (topknot) or natural styles. Using fine silk, cotton, and hemp fabrics, the aesthetic aspect was emphasized, distinguishing them from nomadic tribes. Records indicate Goguryeo people constantly wore battle-ready attire to prepare for emergencies, reflecting their prioritization of clothing suited for action and combat. Sericulture was advanced, enabling the use of diverse colors like white, black, yellow, and purple in clothing.
Baekje Clothing:
Like other art forms, Baekje clothing was renowned for its beauty and exhibited a more feminine style compared to Goguryeo. Clothing was highly developed, with regulations on color for official robes, bearing similarities to Goguryeo. Women adorned their hair with ornaments for formal or important occasions. Men, like in Goguryeo, commonly wore loosely fitted overgarments (po). Official headgear was decorated according to rank, with the king wearing gold ornaments and officials from minister ranks down to naesol wearing silver.
Silla Clothing:
Developing later than Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla rapidly adopted cultural influences from the two kingdoms and Tang China, including clothing concepts. Records indicate that Tang-style clothing was introduced, first adopted by Silla’s aristocratic men. Silla’s active adoption of Tang clothing around 648 CE during Queen Jindok’s reign evidenced its embrace of Tang culture.
Silla implemented a dual clothing system – the nobility adopted Tang styles while commoners maintained the traditional jeogori-baji and jeogori-chima forms. Silla developed its distinct clothing style influenced by Baekje and Goguryeo.
Due to limited historical documentation from the Three Kingdoms period, recreating or verifying clothing details is often challenging. However, based on excavated relics, it is known that the Gaya people of modern Gyeongsan wore jeogori with rounded collars and incorporated intricate patterns inspired by iron tool decorations into their clothing designs.
The North-South States Period
Silla, which had unified parts of Baekje and Goguryeo, greatly developed its clothing culture through an embracing policy towards migrants from those kingdoms as well as active exchanges with Tang China. Silla society was based on the bone-rank system, where patterns and permissions for wearing certain garments were determined by one’s social status. It was around 664 CE, slightly before the unification by King Munmu, that aristocratic Silla women were allowed to wear Tang-style clothing. Unlike the Three Kingdoms era, excavations in Yonggangdong, Gyeongju have uncovered female hanbok with strapped skirts worn over jeogori.
When the Tang official robe system was introduced to Silla, female hanbok began incorporating many Tang characteristics, gaining great popularity among noble women. However, records only mention the influence of Tang clothing styles, while present-day Chinese attire differs significantly, and tangible evidence from the Tang era is limited to a few remaining murals, leaving uncertainty about the true extent of Tang influence on Silla dress.
Meanwhile, Balhae, the successor of Goguryeo, initially maintained Goguryeo’s robe system of wearing traditional overgarment styles. However, after the 3rd king Munwang, aristocrats started adopting Tang official robes due to increasing exchanges, while commoners likely wore a mix of Goguryeo styles and those of neighboring ethnic minorities like the Mohe and Khitan.
Goryeo Dynasty
During the reign of King Gwangjong, the Goryeo dynasty underwent a major strengthening of royal authority. At the time of Gwangjong’s ascension, Goryeo’s clothing lacked standardization, with colors and styles differing based on one’s social background. Two years after implementing the gwageo civil service examination system, Gwangjong designated four authorized colors for sleeve trims: purple, red, green, and maroon.
While influences from foreign clothing on hanbok were usually short-lived or superficial, the Mongol impact proved exceptionally transformative, visually altering hanbok styles. When Goryeo became a subordinate state to the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, Mongol princesses entered the Goryeo royal family, and elements of Mongol attire were incorporated into Goryeo court clothing. This included the use of wide outer ties to replace the traditional belted waist sashes.
The Yuan dynasty’s interventions in domestic affairs also prompted changes in the attire of queens, concubines, and nobility. However, it is difficult to claim that Yuan clothing itself directly influenced and contributed to the evolution of hanbok’s fundamental form. One piece of evidence is the gradual shortening of jeogori lengths from the Three Kingdoms era through the Goryeo and Joseon periods. If jeogori had been temporarily modified under Mongol influence, its length should have increased again in the Joseon era, which did not occur. Skirt (chima) lengths and styles also varied across different eras.CopyRetry
Joseon Dynasty
In the early Joseon period, hanbok featured loose sleeves, as evidenced by the mural excavated from the tomb of Park Ik (1332–1398). After its founding, Joseon adopted Confucianism as the governing ideology, which led to strict hierarchical distinctions reflected in clothing. Early Joseon skirts (chima) excavated, such as the sseuranchima, closely resembled Ming dynasty Chinese skirts, sharing similar patterns. Meanwhile, jeogori lengths grew longer while chima widths increased as they were worn at the waist level. However, by the 16th century, jeogori lengths shortened above the waist, rising closer to the chest area.
A notable characteristic of mid-Joseon clothing was that both men’s and women’s hanbok featured lengthened backs extending below the waist, though these gradually became shorter over time. Women’s jeogori followed this trend, becoming unprecedentedly short by the late Joseon period. Consequently, where previously jeogori had looser fits, they became more form-fitting later on. As the shortened jeogori no longer covered the chima hems, a wide band approximately one jo (unit) wide was worn under the arms to cover the gap between jeogori and chima.
Towards the end of Joseon, while jeogori lengths continued shrinking, chima lengths and widths became exceptionally long and broad, reaching unprecedented proportions. In the 18th-19th centuries, the jeogori silhouette transitioned to a rounded, bell-like shape.
Modern hanbok directly descends from these historical lineages, most closely resembling the late Joseon period styles of the 19th century, having undergone many transformations and fashion trends over the 500-year span before settling into its present widely recognized form.
Modern Era
During the Japanese colonial period, the so-called “new women” initiated a reformed hanbok style by wearing shortened chima skirts with white jeogori tops, which became an iconic representation of the “new woman” attire for a time.
Until the 1960s, scenes of citizens strolling in hanbok could still be witnessed. However, from the 1980s onward, as Western suits and fabric became more widely available, hanbok gradually faded from everyday life.
Nowadays, hanbok is generally reserved for special occasions and holidays, while relaxed everyday hanbok styles have started gaining popularity. In 1984, when a hanbok designer unveiled reformed hanbok designs, similar reinvented styles began appearing for the general public. Unlike traditional hanbok, these new styles replaced the jeogori ties with buttons for easier wear, and incorporated slimmer Western-style skirts into the typically voluminous chima for improved mobility.
After the 1970s, as hanbok’s function became limited to formal attire, the emphasis shifted from practicality to aesthetics, prompting efforts to preserve the tradition while highlighting more creative aspects. This led to the emergence of hanbok with bolder colors and sleeker lines. The 1986 Asian Games and 1988 Seoul Olympics sparked widespread “wear hanbok” movements by various groups, reigniting public interest. The “Hanbok Wearing Day” event initiated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 1996 is regarded as instrumental in attracting popular attention to hanbok.
While period dramas of the past showcased elegant and ornate hanbok, contemporary shows experiment with new materials and shapes. Lace fabric from wedding dresses is incorporated, jeogori tops are omitted to expose shoulders, and chima bodices feature intricate embroidery or ribbons, forming popular hanbok dress styles. Adopting the dress form allows for embellishing the chima’s bodice area to highlight lines and colors without a jeogori top. For instance, the drama “Gung” featured a contemporary palace setting where distinctly shortened hanbok was combined with mini-dress elements.
This application of Western clothing concepts to hanbok was not limited to period pieces. In contrast to the emphasis on grandeur for international events in the 1980s, the 1990s saw a decline in embroidery and ornament trends on chima and seom. Instead, as everyday hanbok gained popularity, hanbok was transformed into one-piece styles with shortened skirt lengths reminiscent of Western dresses.
Given hanbok’s expense and limited wearing occasions, a new business trend emerged: hanbok rental services catering to consumers seeking quality attire for special events at relatively affordable prices. These services offer not just traditional styles but also creative and fusion hanbok designs, fulfilling diverse consumer preferences.
Efforts in Globalizing Hanbok
As Korean cultural content becomes widely introduced to Asian countries, there has been a significant increase in foreign tourists trying on hanbok or purchasing it. For instance, there is a growing trend of Chinese newlyweds choosing hanbok as their wedding attire, leading to collaborations between local businesses and hanbok companies.
Meanwhile, hanbok fashion shows and exhibitions participated by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism and private sectors have been receiving positive responses worldwide, serving as inspiration for some designers. By participating in Prêt-à-Porter for the first time as Koreans, designers Lee Young-hee and Lee Shin-woo have contributed to raising awareness of hanbok internationally. Due to the lack of understanding of hanbok, French newspapers covering Lee Young-hee’s fashion show in 1993 mistakenly referred to hanbok as “kimono corean” and even fashion experts in France commonly called hanbok kimono due to their low awareness of Korea. Subsequently, since the 120th anniversary of Korea-France diplomatic relations in April 2005, various exhibitions have been held, becoming a turning point in raising awareness of hanbok. After seeing hanbok exhibitions, the renowned designer Miuccia Prada visited Lee Young-hee’s hanbok store in Seoul in 2010.
Hanbok fashion shows are held in various countries around the world, and the Korean Cultural Center in London received favorable reviews for planning a hanbok exhibition titled “Our Clothes – Baekja.” These fashion shows are held through collaboration between the public and private sectors in many cities worldwide. Designer Lee Sang-bong has been famous for presenting Taegeukgi (태극기) images and mosi (모시) fabric in Paris since 1985, while hanbok researcher Lee Young-hee has been known for organizing stages themed on hanbok in Singapore, Manhattan, and Paris. Joint stages featuring multiple hanbok designers have also been held in Hong Kong, London, Moscow, Shanghai, the United Arab Emirates, Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, and even in New York, where famous designer Carolina Herrera, originally from Venezuela, introduced hanbok-inspired jackets and skirts as a single material at the Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week 2011 Spring/Summer Collection. The South Korean government has established plans to foster hanbok, Hangeul, hanok, and other elements as part of a single style.
Perception of Hanbok
In contrast to the government’s efforts to cultivate Hanbok as a national brand, the greatest challenge in preserving and advancing Hanbok currently lies in the lack of public awareness. Even during traditional holidays, there is a tendency to dismiss Hanbok as “old-fashioned,” leading to divided opinions on how to overcome this situation. While some advocate for modernizing Hanbok to better suit contemporary lifestyles, others fear that such changes may ultimately erode the traditional identity of Hanbok.
Additionally, there are concerns about the limited understanding and familiarity with Hanbok, often compared to Japan. In Japan, kimono is highly regarded as a beloved ceremonial attire, with many individuals receiving education on wearing kimono for coming-of-age ceremonies. In contrast, Hanbok is often worn only once or twice a year and has lost its role as ceremonial attire, resulting in waning interest and difficulty in finding educational opportunities for learning about Hanbok.
There have been instances highlighting the disparity in perceptions between the government and the private sector regarding Hanbok. For example, Hanbok designer Lee Hye-soon was denied entry to a buffet at the Shilla Hotel due to wearing Hanbok, sparking criticism. Despite apologies from the hotel’s management, the issue remains unresolved, shedding light on concerns about the lack of awareness and ignorance within Korean society. In fact, several university departments related to Hanbok studies have been shut down, with no new professors being appointed, reflecting the current situation.
Unique Characteristics
Fabric
Hanbok utilizes various types of cotton fabric, and with the influence of Western civilization, the range of mixed fabrics has expanded. The choice of fabric also varies slightly depending on the garment, such as the jacket or trousers, and there are significant differences according to the seasons. For jackets, common materials include silk, oak, and regular wool, totaling over ten types, while in summer, people prefer using ramie or hemp, and in spring and fall, they favor silk or gabsa, hancar, and guksa cloth. The use of various materials throughout the seasons has been well-balanced, with silk, wool, and silk being commonly used for adult men’s outerwear.
Depending on the lining and outer fabric, there are also differences, with silk being the most commonly used material. For silk jackets, most of the lining is made of silk, and if not possible, only the collar, cuffs, and inside of the pockets are made of silk. Otherwise, a lining made of a different fabric, such as cotton, is used. In reality, research on jackets has revealed that silk accounts for over 60% of the materials found, followed by cotton and hemp. In some cases, a combination of silk and cotton was used for the lining. When jackets were torn or needed mending, they were usually repaired with the same fabric, often adding large pieces to the elbows. Silk was not only used for jackets but also for various garments such as skirts, vests, and trousers.
Yangban (aristocrats) wore tightly woven silk fabrics and light materials even in the summer. Due to social constraints, commoners were prohibited from wearing hanbok made of materials other than cotton, making the fabric of their garments a significant indicator of their social status.
Colors
The colors of hanbok worn by the upper class were very diverse. Young children mostly preferred bright colors like red or yellow, while the middle-aged favored slightly darker shades. However, the majority wore white hanbok in their daily lives, and yellow was considered the color of the emperor, thus its usage was restricted. Moreover, gold leaf and embroidery were used in the royal court, but they were rarely found in commoner’s clothing. However, the standards and distinctions of colors based on social classes varied slightly depending on the era.
The colors of hanbok often harmonized with the principles of Yin and Yang and the Five Elements theory. Typically, the color of the jeogori matched or was brighter than that of the skirt. Since the Three Kingdoms period, the colors used in the royal court symbolized harmony and balance between opposites. Additionally, hanbok colors revolved around white as a base, with bright primary colors and very dark shades coexisting. As a result, the contrast between light and dark colors created a striking effect.
In modern times, natural dyeing techniques have emerged as a luxurious feature of hanbok. Soft natural colors such as apricot, pink, and lavender, along with rich hues like watermelon and deep red, are being more vividly expressed. Hanbok researcher Ms. Park Sool-nyeo recommends bright and cheerful colors like pink or indigo for the younger generation, while suggesting subtle and elegant colors like sage green or oak for middle-aged individuals. Furthermore, there’s a growing trend towards using lighter colors to provide a sense of stability, reflecting changes in clothing styles, such as couple looks.
Patterns
Before the Joseon Dynasty, various types of embroidery, including plants, animals, and geometric shapes, were used on hanbok. These patterns each had their own meanings. Especially for wedding hanbok, patterns such as peonies, roses, and daisies were commonly used. Each pattern had a unique significance. For example, cranes symbolized longevity and purity, while tigers and dragons were used alongside cranes to represent nobility. These patterns were expressed through techniques like embroidery, gold leaf, and carving, and they formed an important part of Korean culture beyond hanbok.
Embroidery in East Asia originated from the Persian civilization, spread through the Silk Road to China, and later to the Korean Peninsula. Although there is no evidence of ancient embroidery like that in China, according to records from the Three Kingdoms period, Goguryeo nobles preferred silk clothes embroidered with unique patterns. Meanwhile, Baekje maintained relations with China to counter Silla, leading to influences from the North-South States period. During the Unified Silla period, Buddhist-influenced embroidery became popular for social integration, and this influence continued into the Goryeo period, resulting in diverse patterns such as national flowers, lotus flowers, autumn leaves, bamboo, plum blossoms, and gods. During the Joseon Dynasty, uniquely Korean embroidery emerged and spread widely among the public. In the royal court, there were specialized workshops for embroidery, emphasizing beauty, and gold leaf and silver leaf were used to symbolize authority.
Embroidery can be broadly divided into hand embroidery and machine embroidery, and since the resumption of diplomatic relations with China in 1992, there has been an increase in customers ordering hand embroidery, although many companies still prefer machine embroidery. Embroidery is mostly used on the jackets, skirts, and front bands of women’s hanbok, with floral patterns being particularly common. In modern times, embroideries on the sleeves of jackets have become popular, and according to a study on hanbok from 1986 to 1997, embroidery patterns have become smaller and more contemporary since the mid-1990s.
Embellishments with Gold and Silver Foil
Embellishments with gold and silver foil have a very long history in Korea. During the early period of ancient Korea, in the Bronze Age, a technique was used where mercury was applied, and then gold or silver foil was placed on top, followed by heating to evaporate the mercury, thereby gilding the surface.
Until the Joseon Dynasty, these embellishments were primarily used on women’s hanbok to adorn skirts and jackets. These decorations were mainly made of gold and silver foil. Gold foil, in particular, was made by pounding gold into thin sheets, which were then carved and cut to create intricate patterns. Gold foil was commonly used on the collars of jackets and sometimes paired with embroidery. For skirts, it could be applied along the hemline or all over.
Gold foil wasn’t limited to clothing; it was also used on various accessories such as purses, utensil pouches, scent pouches, and fans.
Silver foil, on the other hand, was mainly used on collars and cuffs but wasn’t as popular as gold foil among consumers. Therefore, it wasn’t as commonly used, leading to uneven distribution in its application.
These foil embellishments weren’t exclusive to garments; they were also applied to silk sutras. During the mid-Joseon period, imported gold and silver foil paper, widely used in China and Japan, began to be imported and used in Korea.
When applying foil decorations, it was challenging to handle materials like paper, silk, or synthetic fibers, as gold and silver easily adhered to them. Therefore, great care was required in the process.
Author’s Claim:
Hanbok is undeniably a traditional culture centered around South Korea and its official name. When applied in South Korea and internationally, terms like “Joseon attire” or “Joseon ethnic clothing” are considered inappropriate, dating back to around the 1950s.
The controversy over China’s distortion of Hanbok refers to China’s attempt to incorporate Hanbok, a traditional Korean costume, into Chinese culture and identity, sparking disputes between Korea and China. This is part of China’s effort to consume Korean culture and claim it as their own. The intentional manipulation of information, such as deleting Hanbok pages on platforms like Baidu in 2019 and replacing them with descriptions of “100% traditional clothing of the Chinese ethnic minority Chosunzu” (Joseon ethnic clothing), as well as using photos of Korean actress Kim Tae-hee, has intensified the controversy even on mainland Chinese portals.
China’s authorities are suspected of packaging Hanbok as part of Chinese ethnic minority culture to reap global benefits. Efforts to unify Hanbok under the term “Joseon ethnic clothing” show a two-faced attitude, mimicking Korean broadcasting styles. However, despite China’s efforts, the term “Hanbok” itself is likely to remain intact. Since the 20th century, Koreans have continuously used the term “Hanbok,” and amid the serious cultural conflict between Korea and China in the early 2020s due to COVID-19, explanations about the origin and significance of Hanbok were provided. Moreover, it’s already listed as “Hanbok” in English dictionaries, making it difficult to change to something like “Chaoxianzu Fushi” (Joseon ethnic clothing). Additionally, most people are aware that Hanbok is a culture that has evolved and developed primarily in Korea.
The controversy over China’s distortion of Hanbok has existed since the past, but it gained momentum from the late 2010s to the early 2020s, with various Chinese cultural media, including dramas, incorrectly portraying Hanbok or introducing it as a type of Hanfu.
Subsequently, in early November 2020, a Chinese mobile game, Shining Nikki, modified Hanbok costumes promoted as traditional Korean attire to traditional Chinese attire due to complaints from Chinese users. This sparked sudden outrage from Korean users, leading to the abrupt termination of the game’s service in Korea.
Through such incidents, the controversy over the distortion of Hanbok, which was previously confined to media and online communities between Korea and China, directly impacted Korea. This led to increased friction between Korea and China, referred to in Korea as the “Hanbok distortion controversy,” reminiscent of past controversies like the Northeast Project. Some speculate that China’s attempt stems from the loss of much of its unique culture during the Cultural Revolution and the Tiananmen Square protests, leading them to claim successful cultures of neighboring countries as their own.
While some argue that attributing Korean culture to Chinese culture is the result of incitement by certain low-ranking Chinese netizens, considering China’s previous actions, most people are skeptical.
During the late Joseon Dynasty, there was a tendency among Confucian scholars to elevate the value of the Joseon period by claiming, “Since Qing Dynasty clothing completely transformed into modern clothing, Joseon continued the clothing of the Ming Dynasty.” However, scholars with nationalistic tendencies, such as Bakje-ga and Hong Dae-yong, criticized this by saying, “Although Qing Dynasty men’s clothing became similar to that of the Manchus, women’s clothing was not much different from that of the Ming Dynasty. In contrast, Joseon’s clothing, while men’s clothing may have changed, women’s clothing is much closer to that of the Ming Dynasty.” Ironically, this is also evidence that Korean traditional clothing is different from Hanfu.